How People Learn

Author: Christy Chang

School/Organization:

Office of Curriculum and Instruction, The School District of Philadelphia

Year: 2025

Seminar: Introduction to Cognitive Science: Uncovering the Machine in the Mind

Grade Level: 6-12

Keywords: Background Knowledge, Cognitive Science, ELA, literacy, Reading Instruction, Science of Learning, Science of Reading, Self-Efficacy, Strategies, vocabulary

School Subject(s): ELA

This unit explores the Science of Learning starting with the essential question “How do People Learn?” In this unit, participants will define learning by drawing from personal and professional experiences, then delve into texts (like Make it Stick) and journal articles that introduce effective learning strategies and explain why they are effective from a cognitive science lens. There will be several assessments that aim to help participants reflect on and evaluate their understanding of The Science of Learning, including reflective narratives, infographics, and learning plans that will give participants the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of how learning happens, as well as the various obstacles that stand in the way.

Did you try this unit in your classroom? Give us your feedback here.

Full Unit Text

Unit Content

Context

In my role as an ELA curriculum specialist at the School District of Philadelphia, I am constantly thinking about the teaching and learning that happens in the secondary ELA classroom, particularly as it relates to the students’ deep understanding of complex, grade level text. Understanding is hard to assess or measure, but holistically, the goal of the secondary ELA classroom is for students to confidently and effectively analyze text, discuss text, and write about the text in a way that demonstrates a firm grip on both its content and structure.

But there is a problem. Based on the recent 2024 NAEP Reading results, only 19 percent of eighth graders scored proficient or advanced; one could say that less than a quarter of our city’s eighth graders can read grade-level text let alone analyze it at a deep level. This is why there has been a collective district-wide effort for years to increase literacy for our students, with a particular focus on the early grades, since a longitudinal study by Donald J. Hernandez revealed that students who can’t read proficiently by 3rd grade are four times more likely to not graduate high school.

One key lever for increasing reading comprehension is having access to background knowledge and word knowledge (vocabulary), and the subsequent ability to retrieve that knowledge when encountering new information. This is where cognitive science comes in — what are the most effective strategies for students to learn new information, store it away, and retrieve this information when it’s needed? The course that I would like to develop will be focused on equipping administrators, coaches, and literacy teachers with a deeper understanding of what is happening in the brain as learning happens and how this impacts what strategies and instructional approaches should be used.

My hope is to create a modular professional learning series that answers the simple question, “how do people learn?” with a particular focus on literacy instruction and building background knowledge/vocabulary knowledge. This series will hopefully be available to all administrators, coaches, and secondary ELA teachers at the School District of Philadelphia through various PL programming including Tune Up Tuesday, Office of Curriculum and Instruction supplemental PDs, and the 6-8 FAQ Videos series.

The aim of this unit is to bridge our current focus on the Science of Reading with the Science of Learning to ensure that students are not only being exposed to necessary and valuable information, but they’re also given the tools and strategies to effectively engage with this information in a way that deepens their ability to analyze text, talk about text, and write about text inside the ELA classroom and beyond.

Essential Question: How do people learn?

This unit will be guided by the essential question, “How do people learn?” By starting with this foundational question, participants will be challenged to identify all their existing assumptions about learning and set them aside in order to explore the science of learning and what actually drives deep learning.

This essential question will be primarily addressed using the book Make it Stick by Peter C. Brown, Henry L. Roediger III, and Mark A. McDaniel. This book focuses on how people learn through the lens of cognitive science research, and participants will be able to consider how the learning strategies presented in this book can be applied not only in their classrooms, but also in their personal learning journeys, specifically in the realm of literacy instruction.

To explore this essential question, this unit will address and unpack the following focus questions:

How is learning misunderstood? What are some common illusions that prevent learners from implementing the most effective strategies?
What is the role of self-efficacy in learning? What is the impact of a learner experiencing incremental successes towards mastering a larger learning goal?
How does memory work?
“Practice makes perfect” — is this true? and if so, what does this really look like?
What does it mean to reach “mastery” of a skill? And what are the pitfalls that create a false sense of mastery?

This unit is modular:

The first module would provide an overview of the Cognitive Load Theory, which provides a mental model of how learning occurs when new information enters the brain and engages with retrieved information from long term memory.
The second module would identify the current obstacles that get in the way of deep learning, covering topics like post-pandemic languishing and the addiction to dopamine by way of technology and how these factors could influence a learner’s self-efficacy.
The third module would delve into the concept of memory — what is it, how does it work, how to maximize memory.
The fourth module would focus on retrieval practice. What is the science behind reviewing information and what are the most effective retrieval strategies for the secondary ELA classroom?
The fifth module would focus on specific learning strategies such as the use of analogies to further analytical problem solving and demystifying complex ideas as well as regular peer instruction.

In each module, participants will not only learn about featured topics, but they will also have opportunities to practice using the strategies and activities that are introduced and then engage with each other to debrief their respective experiences and explore how these instructional methods could be replicated within their classroom contexts.

Focus on Vocabulary Instruction

The focus of this modular unit will be on vocabulary instruction, since this will allow participants to focus more on learning strategies as opposed to first learning content (background knowledge), then focusing on strategies.

Excerpts from official district professional development captures how vocabulary instructional practices will be first introduced to lay the groundwork for discussing the science of learning and learning strategies at large:

Before we continue with our session on learning words, let’s first talk about its connection with academic discourse. Learning takes place when students have constant opportunities to engage in academic discourse. When we unpack this nebulous term, academic discourse can simply be defined as “an exchange of questions and thoughts in a learning environment” However, we want to strengthen this term and focus on strong academic discourse, which can be defined as “an exchange of questions and thoughts by all students in a learning environment grounded in text” Are there other aspects of strong academic discourse that you’d add?
Strong academic discourse relies on five components of literacy: phonemic awareness (identifying sounds even before learning their corresponding letters), phonics (letter-sound relationships), fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Phonemic awareness and phonics are generally covered in grades K-3, and while fluency might be covered incidentally in high school, the last two pillars, vocabulary and comprehension, are the ones that are covered in Tier I instruction from Kindergarten all the way through the 12th grade. Today’s focus will be on vocabulary, or word knowledge.
Studies find a correlation between reading comprehension and vocabulary of between .3 to .8. “Longitudinal studies provide evidence to support both … vocabulary knowledge predicting growth in reading comprehension and reading comprehension predicting growth in vocabulary knowledge” (Tannenbaum et al., 2006) “People with more extensive vocabularies not only know more words but also know more about the words they know. Depth of word knowledge correlates almost as strongly to reading as breadth of knowledge.” (Isabel Beck, et al 2013)
The two strands of vocabulary instruction are explicit instruction and implicit instruction. As a middle school teacher, I definitely focused more on explicit instruction, giving my students a proverbial vocabulary list of ten terms like clockwork pretty much every Monday.
While the two terms will be unpacked in more detail, here are the basic definitions of both explicit and implicit vocabulary instruction:
- Explicit vocabulary instruction takes place when the teacher selects words to teach directly, providing students with the definition, an example of how the word can be used in a sentence/and in conversation, then providing multiple ways for students to practice using the word both in written and verbal communication.
- Implicit vocabulary instruction takes place when students autonomously learn the definition and use of unknown words by applying one of the strategies that can be used to independently learn new words, such as using a dictionary, using context clues, or examining the etymology of the word.
- So, which one is better? There’s actually some contentious debate on which form of vocabulary instruction is more effective. Some people argue that word knowledge is built organically as learners read, while others argue that vocabulary has to be taught systematically and intentionally. The truth is that both are important; the question shouldn’t be whether to teach one way and discard the other, but rather how to teach in both ways better, as evidenced by a study which revealed that “both instructions was effective but the effects of implicit instruction was more effective and the instruction’s difference was significant (Khamesipour, 2015).
- This nifty little graph captures the sweet spot of how students should be learning words – the first goal is to introduce students to a large number of words, especially through wide reading and implicit vocabulary instruction. And the equally important second goal is to instill deep world knowledge, even if it means only a few words can be covered at a time, through explicit instruction. As students practice and gain a deeper understanding of how words work through explicit instruction, they’re able to apply that skill and deepening knowledge to their broad word knowledge, and that is the sweet spot.

Moving into our main focus for today’s session, explicit instruction, we want to first address a popular way of teaching vocabulary, straightforwardly called “the synonym model.” This is when words are introduced as a pair of words having the same exact definition. This approach oversimplifies their precise definitions, diluting the very richness that gives each word a special value and meaning when used in language. If words are simply taught by giving a weak synonym, then students are more likely to misuse the word in the future. For example, mimic and imitate may overlap in some aspects of their respective meanings, but mimic has a negative connotation whereas imitate is neutral. Knowing how words within word families are similar AND different is what will ultimately deepen word knowledge.
Best practices:
- Provide a definition that is simple and clear, not containing jargon, which many dictionary definitions include
- If a word has multiple definitions, start with the most applicable one in the context of the what you’re reading in class
- It’s common practice for a great chunk of vocabulary instruction to be dedicated to students “arriving” at the definition. A more productive allocation of time would be to introduce the student-friendly definition right away, and then spend the remaining time “applying the word’s meaning in increasingly complex situations.” (page 259, Reading Reconsidered)
- In order for these new vocab words to be a part of students’ functional vocabulary, we need to introduce the parameters of use — further adding context to how and when the word would be used.
- “Mastering meaning involves students using a word to illustrate its degree of meaning with fluidity, expertise, and a depth of understanding. There are four ways you can ask students to practice mastering meaning, both verbally and in writing:” (Lemov, 2018), as evidenced by a study that demonstrated vocabulary growth in students who had extensive exposure and practice using these strategies (Young-Davy, 2014).

When a word would (and would not) apply:	“Would it be accurate to say that the teacher is foisting homework upon the students? Tell me why or why not.”
To combine multiple new words:	“Could the government foist new taxes on people and also lower taxes on people? “
To narrate the story:	“Can a group foist its values upon another group? Explain how this happened in [insert name of text].”
To define a nuance in the usage of the word:	“How is it different to state that the man foisted cookies upon the customers as opposed to, say, gave away?”

“Asking students to practice accurately helps prevent misapplication of words. To build positive new habits (and avoid the need to unlearn bad ones), it’s a good idea to have students practice a variety of uses. There are two ways to do this:” (Reading Reconsidered)

Change the form

In its gerund/noun form, we would say foisting. Write a sentence that includes foisting as a gerund.

Create a sentence with the word and/or other parameters

Write a sentence that includes foist describing a situation in the text that we are reading.

Teaching Strategies

Learning Journey Narrative

Participants in this course will first reflect on their own experience as learners by writing a personal narrative that captures their learning journey both inside and outside of the classroom. This retrospective activity will prompt participants to think about their relationship with learning new information, the ways in which learning felt most natural and most challenging to them, and how they would describe an ideal learning environment. This narrative will allow participants to establish their existing beliefs on learning, so that as this unit develops the most effective learning strategies, they will be able to consider this information in light of their personal backgrounds.

Science of Learning Infographic

As we gain momentum in this unit and cover the most effective strategies for learning (as well as dispel common assumptions on learning that are not true), participants will gradually develop a set of infographics that respectively cover effective learning strategies and ineffective learning strategies. This infographic will have participants synthesize their understanding of how learning works and also serve as a mental model for the Learning Plan that they will create.

Learning Plan

Participants will create a Learning Plan by first choosing a learning goal that involves learning ten new vocabulary words. Participants will create bite-sized action steps that work towards mastery of this learning goal and include a side-by-side rationale for the learning strategies that are embedded into this plan.

Learning Journey Narrative, Revisited

Participants will return to their Learning Journey Narrative and write an addendum where they reflect on how this unit deepened their understanding of how people learn and if there are any shifts they’d like to make in their practice as a result.

Classroom Activities

*Lesson Example #1*
Title	Learning Journey Narrative
Materials	● Learning Journey Narrative Handout ● Chart Paper ● Markers ● Pencils
Objective	● Discuss and define “learning” ● Create a mental model of one’s perception of how they learn ● Reflect on what experiences affected self-efficacy and motivation as a learner
Standard	Danielson Domain 4a
Step by Step	Opening ● Have participants come up with a definition for learning and jot it down ● In partners, participants will share their definitions with each other and come up with a collective definition that captures how they think learning should be defined ● Have each pair share their collaborative definition with the whole group Core Instruction ● On chart paper, post the following definition of learning from the book Make it Stick: “acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from memory so you can make sense of future problems and opportunities.” ● In small groups, have participants discuss the following: ○ Growing up, what was something you learned that came naturally* to you?* ○ What was something you learned that was a product of struggle* and failure?* ○ Why do you think some things were harder to learn than others? What factors influenced these learning experiences?
Assessment	Learning Journey Narrative

*Lesson Example #2*
Title	Science of Learning Infographic
Materials	● Science of Learning Infographic Templates ● Chart Paper ● Markers ● Pencils
Objective	● Understand effective learning strategies that reinforce memory retrieval ● Create a one-pager that captures learning strategies that can be embedded in ELA instruction
Standard	Danielson Domain 1a
Step by Step	Opening Activity ● Post this definition of interleaving for review: ○ *Interleaving is a process where students mix, or interleave, multiple subjects or topics while they study in order to improve their learning* (The University of Arizona) ● Present this scenario from Make it Stick (page 50) to participants and have them discuss in small groups: ○ Suppose you’re a trainer in a company trying to teach employees a complicated new process that involves ten procedures. The typical way of doing this is to train up in procedure 1, repeating it many times until the trainees really seem to have it down cold. Then you go to procedure 2, you do many repetitions of 2, you get that down, and so on. That appears to produce fast learning. What would interleaved practice look like? Core Instruction ● Participants draft a list of learning strategies that were covered during this course and write down example classroom scenarios in which they might be implemented ● Participants will create infographics that capture 4-5 learning strategies using the templates provided ● After independent work time, participants will have the opportunity to do a gallery walk to view each other’s infographics and write down 3-4 additional learning strategies that they would like to reference during the school year
Assessment	Science of Learning Infographic Templates

*Lesson Example #3*
Title	Learning Plan
Materials	● Learning Plan Template ● Chart Paper ● Markers ● Pencils
Objective	● Participants will create a coherent learning plan that leads to the mastery of an intended outcome related to learning ten vocabulary words ● Participants will embed 2-3 learning strategies covered during the course and explain the cognitive rationale behind their effectiveness in memory retrieval
Standard	Danielson Domain 1e
Step by Step	Opening Activity ● Have participants read an excerpt from the article, “On the Difficult of Mending Metacognitive Illusions: A Priori Theories, Fluency Effects, and Misattributions of the Interleaving Benefit” (pages 931-932 – “General Discussion”) ● Have them discuss the following: ○ What is the difference between blocked and interleaved study? ○ From your personal experience as a learner, which form of learning was encouraged more in the classroom? ○ What is the “metacognitive illusion” that this article references? ○ How do you think this metacognitive illusion can be addressed? Core Instruction ● Participants will choose ten vocabulary words from a specific content area/topic (Tier 3 words) ● Using the template, participants will consider the following: ○ How will you explicitly teach these words? ○ What are the ways that you will intentionally help students develop self-efficacy (little “victory” ○ What are the strategies you will embed for retrieval practice? ○ How will you incorporate interleaving? ○ How will you ensure that students avoid false fluency? ○ What “desirable difficulties” will you create? ● With a partner, participants will share their learning plan and provide peer feedback, specifically focusing on the following considerations: ○ Are the ten words from the same topic/content area? ○ Does each vocabulary word come with a student-friendly definition? ○ What are the ways that these words will be explicitly taught? ○ What opportunities are there for students to practice using these words? ○ How does this learning plan specifically address how to avoid false fluency? ○ How will students demonstrate mastery? Source: Ditch That Textbook
Assessment	Learning Plan Template

*Lesson Example #4*
Title	Learning Journey Narrative, Revisited
Materials	● Learning Journey Narrative, Revisited Handout ● Chart Paper ● Markers ● Pencils
Objective	● Create a mental model of one’s perception of how they learn ● Reflect on what experiences affected self-efficacy and motivation as a learner
Standard	Danielson Domain 4a
Step by Step	Opening Activity ● Have participants pull out their Learning Journey Narrative from the beginning of this course and read it. ● Have them jot down some learning strategies and concepts covered in this course that might have influenced their experience as learners. Core Instruction ● In their Learning Journey Narrative, Revisited Template — have them consider: ○ What are some of the learning strategies covered in these modules that you plan to incorporate moving forward in your practice? ○ How does your understanding of the Science of Learning illuminate the learning experiences that you had personally, and those of the people you support professionally? ○ Think of something you would like to learn in the next month. What learning strategies do you hope to incorporate in this experience? ● In a whole group discussion, participants will share 1-2 insights from their reflection.
Assessment	Learning Journey Narrative, Revisited

Resources

“Analogical Problem Solving” (Gick and Holyoak, 1980),

reasoninglab.psych.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/273/2021/04/Gick-Holyoak1980Analogical-Problem-Solving.pdf. Accessed 5 June 2025.

Brown, Peter C. Make It Stick : the Science of Successful Learning. Cambridge,

Massachusetts :The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014.

Dotan, Dror, and Sharon Zviran-Ginat. “Elementary math in elementary school: The

effect of interference on learning the multiplication table.” Cognitive Research:

Principles and Implications, vol. 7, no. 1, 2 Dec. 2022,

https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-022-00451-0.

Fisher, Douglas, et al. Teaching Foundational Skills to Adolescent Readers. Corwin

Press, 2025.

Khamesipour, Marzieh. “The Effects of Explicit and Implicit Instruction of Vocabulary

through Reading on EFL Learners’ Vocabulary Development.” Theory and

Practice in Language Studies, vol. 5, no. 8, 2015, www.academypublication.com/issues2/tpls/vol05/08/11.pdf.

“Leveraging Analogies.” Jeremy Utley, Jeremy Utley, 22 July 2021,

www.jeremyutley.design/blog/leveraging-analogies.

Liben, David, and Meredith Liben. Know Better, Do Better: Teaching the Foundations so

Every Child Can Read. Scholastic Inc, 2024.

Nuthall, Graham. The Hidden Lives of Learners. NZCER Press, 2007.

Lemov, Doug, et al. Reading Reconsidered: A Practical Guide to Rigorous Literacy

Instruction. Jossey-Bass & Pfeiffer Imprints, Wiley, 2016.

“Spaced Repetition.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 25 May 2025,

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition.

Tullis, Jonathan G., and Robert L. Goldstone. “Why does peer instruction benefit student learning?” Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, vol. 5, no. 1, 9 Apr. 2020, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-020-00218-5.

Weinstein, Yana, et al. “Teaching the science of learning.” Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, vol. 3, no. 1, 24 Jan. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-017-0087-y.

Wexler, Natalie. Beyond the Science of Reading: Connecting Literacy Instruction to the Science of Learning. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development, 2025.

Willingham, Daniel T. Why Don’t Students Like School?: A Cognitive Scientist Answers Questions About How the Mind Works and What It Means for Your Classroom. Jossey-Bass, 2010.

Yan, Veronica X et al. “On the difficulty of mending metacognitive illusions: A priori

theories, fluency effects, and misattributions of the interleaving benefit.” Journal

of experimental psychology. General vol. 145,7 (2016): 918-33. doi:10.1037/xge0000177

Young-Davy, Belinda. “Explicit Vocabulary Instruction.” ORTESOL Journal, vol. 31,

2014, pp. 26-32.

Appendix

Danielson Framework

This framework is used to provide feedback to and evaluate teachers at the School District of Philadelphia

DOMAIN 1: Planning and Preparation

DOMAIN 2: The Classroom Environment

1a Demonstrating Knowledge of Content and Pedagogy

• Content knowledge

• Prerequisite relationships

• Content pedagogy

1b Demonstrating Knowledge of Students • Child development

• Learning process

• Special needs

• Student skills, knowledge, and proficiency

• Interests and cultural heritage

1c Setting Instructional Outcomes

• Value, sequence, and alignment

• Clarity

• Balance

• Suitability for diverse learners

1d Demonstrating Knowledge of Resources

• For classroom

• To extend content knowledge

• For students

1e Designing Coherent Instruction

• Learning activities

• Instructional materials and resources

• Instructional groups

• Lesson and unit structure

1f Designing Student Assessments

• Congruence with outcomes

• Criteria and sta

2a Creating an Environment of Respect and Rapport

• Teacher interaction with students

• Student interaction with students

2b Establishing a Culture for Learning

• Importance of content

• Expectations for learning and achievement

• Student pride in work

2c Managing Classroom Procedures

• Instructional groups

• Transitions

• Materials and supplies

• Non-instructional duties

• Supervision of volunteers and paraprofessionals

2d Managing Student Behavior

• Expectations

• Monitoring behavior

• Response to misbehavior

2e Organizing Physical Space

• Safety and accessibility

• Arrangement of furniture and resources

DOMAIN 4: Professional Responsibilities

DOMAIN 3: Instruction

4a Reflecting on Teaching

•Accuracy

• Use in future teaching

4b Maintaining Accurate Records

•Student completion of assignments

• Student progress in learning

•Non-instructional records

4c Communicating with Families

•About instructional program

• About individual students

• Engagement of families in instructional program

4d Participating in a Professional Community

•Relationships with colleagues

• Participation in school projects

•Involvement in culture of professional inquiry

• Service to school

4e Growing and Developing Professionally

•Enhancement of content knowledge / pedagogical skill

• Receptivity to feedback from colleagues • Service to the profession

4f Showing Professionalism

•Integrity/ethical conduct

• Service to students

• Advocacy

• Decision-making

• Compliance with school/district regulation

3a Communicating With Students

• Expectations for learning • Directions and procedures

• Explanations of content

• Use of oral and written language

3b Using Questioning and Discussion Techniques

• Quality of questions

• Discussion techniques

• Student participation

3c Engaging Students in Learning

• Activities and assignments

• Student groups

• Instructional materials and resources

• Structure and pacing

3d Using Assessment in Instruction

• Assessment criteria

• Monitoring of student learning

• Feedback to students

• Student self-assessment and monitoring

3e Demonstrating Flexibility and Responsiveness

• Lesson adjustment

Learning Journey Narrative

In Make it Stick, learning is described as “acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from memory so you can make sense of future problems and opportunities.” The book asserts that there are three foundational aspects of learning:

1) “First to be useful, learning requires memory, so what we’ve learned is still there later when we need it.”

2) “Second, we need to keep learning and remembering all our lives.”

3) ‘Third, learning is an acquired skill, and the most effective strategies are often counterintuitive.”

In this personal narrative, reflect on yourself as a learner and draw from experiences that happened both inside and outside of the classroom. Consider 2-3 of the following prompts to get you started:

● Growing up, what was something you learned that came naturally to you?

● What was something you learned that was a product of struggle and failure?

● What is something you have recently learned (either a process like learning how to bake a cake or a concept like learning how vocabulary acquisition works for students) and what were some of the key strategies that helped you along the way?

● Of the Make it Stick quotes above, which ones resonate with you immediately and which assertions require you to take a step back and ponder?

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Learning Journey Narrative, Revisited

Take a moment to read through the Learning Journey Narrative that you wrote at the beginning of this course. Consider how the concepts in these modules influenced your understanding of yourself as a learner and learning in general.

Questions to consider:

● What are some of the learning strategies covered in these modules that you plan to incorporate moving forward in your practice?

● How does your understanding of the Science of Learning illuminate the learning experiences that you had personally, and those of the people you support professionally?

● Think of something you would like to learn in the next month. What learning strategies do you hope to incorporate in this experience?

Science of Learning Infographic Templates

Learning Plan Template

Tier 3 Vocabulary Lists (examples)

List 1: Science & Technology Focused

Quantum: Pertaining to the smallest discrete unit of a physical property, such as energy or momentum.
Algorithm: A set of well-defined, step-by-step procedures for solving a problem or accomplishing a task, especially by a computer.
Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with chlorophyll.
Mitosis: A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
Biotechnology: The exploitation of biological processes for industrial and other purposes, especially the genetic manipulation of microorganisms for the production of antibiotics, hormones, etc.
Nanotechnology: The branch of technology that deals with dimensions and tolerances of less than 100 nanometers, especially the manipulation of individual atoms and molecules.
Isotope: Each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.
Kinetic: Relating to or resulting from motion.
Thermodynamics: The branch of physical science that deals with the relations between heat and other forms of energy.
Neurotransmitter: A chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, effects the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure.

List 2: Humanities & Arts Focused

Deconstruct: To analyze (a text or theory) by separating it into its component parts to expose its underlying assumptions or inconsistencies.
Epistemology: The theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope.
Semiotics: The study of signs and symbols and their interpretation.
Verisimilitude: The appearance or semblance of truth; likelihood; probability.
Didactic: Intended to teach, particularly in having moral instruction as an ulterior motive.
Canon: A general law, rule, principle, or criterion by which something is judged. In arts, a collection of works considered to be authentic.
Polemic: A strong verbal or written attack on someone or something.
Iconography: The visual images and symbols used in a work of art or the study or interpretation of these.
Aesthetics: A set of principles concerned with the nature and appreciation of beauty, especially in art.
Rhetoric: The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the use of figures of speech and other compositional techniques.

List 3: Business & Economics Focused

Monopoly: The exclusive possession or control of the supply of or trade in a commodity or service.
Deflation: A general decrease in prices and wages, usually associated with a contraction in the supply of money and credit.
Amortize: To gradually write off the initial cost of (an asset) over a period.
Liquidity: The availability of liquid assets to a market or company; the ease with which an asset, or security, can be converted into ready cash without affecting its market price.
Hegemony: Leadership or dominance, especially by one country or social group over others.
Subprime: Denoting or relating to a loan or credit that is extended to borrowers who are considered to be high-risk.
Arbitrage: The simultaneous buying and selling of securities, currency, or commodities in different markets or in derivative forms in order to take advantage of differing prices for the same asset.
Recession: A period of temporary economic decline during which trade and industrial activity are reduced, generally identified by a fall in GDP in two successive quarters.
Disinflation: A reduction in the rate of inflation.
Synergy: The interaction or cooperation of two or more organizations, substances, or other agents to produce a combined effect greater than the sum of their separate effects.